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Festival time in India comes with many legends. Diwali, for
example, celebrates the return of Lord Rama after 14 years of exile.
The story of Rama as related in the Ramayana has enjoyed universal
appeal. However, it has been subject to many alteration, adaptations
and translations….
The universality of the
Ramayana is a phenomena that has no parallel in the history of
literature. What is equally unique, is the liberty which the
literary tradition has taken, generation after generation, with the
story as well as with the characters that figure in the story. This
is particularly remarkable when we consider that the earliest account
of the Ramayana belongs to Valmiki, acknowledged as the adikavi
(or the first poet). If in the recognized work of such excellence,
where authorship is not unknown, liberties are taken and changes have
been made without reserve, it is worth examining this phenomena at
some length. Was there any social purpose behind these efforts at
“modification?” In what way do they show any significance?
At the outset, it is
possible to observe that the two features viz. universality in appeal
and liberty in treatment are inter-related. In a long tradition of
literary communication – especially one that leans heavily on
oral transmission – ad hoc improvisation and adaptation to suit
the local audience is unavoidable; it is indeed a necessary
ingredient of bard poetry, in order to ensure that kind of appeal
which becomes universal eventually. The wider its appeal to the
people, the greater the attraction for poets and raconteurs to the
theme; the more the narrators, the greater the variation, and so on.
Even when the original epic is closely followed, variety in
interpretation or emphasis is possible to such an extent as can be
seen, for instance, in the English translations of Valmiki that have
appeared in this century. Most of the variations in the Ramayana can
be grouped under: sectarian versions – Buddhist, Jain, Shakta;
versions in Sanskrit – the Kavya tradition; regional versions in
the languages of India and translations of Valmiki.
Whatever may have been
the source material in the form of floating legends, Valmiki’s
epic was the first work to enter the world of literature.
Eventually, it became part of world literature. His stature is
reflected in epithets such as adikavi and margadarsi
(one who shows the direction) by which the Indian tradition refers to
him. He is the father of Indian literature not merely in terms of
antiquity but by virtue of his universality. For, he stands aloft as
the poet of the universe; what he sings in praise of is human dignity
that makes for nobler life. Valmiki’s classic is for all
humanity and the values that he upholds
are eternal. His was,
and remains to this day, the only non-sectarian representation of the
Rama legend.
The power and potential
of the story, as a vehicle of idealism, was quickly recognized,
especially by the Buddhists and Jaina schools of thought that were
expressly committed to the propagation of their faiths. Dharma,
incidentally is the anchor for all Indian faiths: right thought,
right speech and right conduct are enshrined in the concept of raina
traya (the three gems). Thus we find the Jataka tales embodying
the story of Rama, albeit briefly.
The object is to glorify
self-sacrifice, renunciation; Rama’s cheerful acceptance of
banishment is a manifestation of it. Rama, the story can also be
seen as re-enactment of Buddha’s life.
Chronologically, if the
Jataka tales are considered as prior to Valmiki Ramayana, then the
adikavi should be deemed to have enlarged an episode into an
epic and turned a sectarian story into universal heritage.
The motivation for the
Jaina school of thought to adopt the Ramayana was, evidently, similar
to that of the Buddhists – viz, to uphold renunciation as the
ultimate summum bonum of life. The story, already popular by
the 3rd century A.D., receive full treatment in the
Paumacariyu of Vaimalasuri. Written in Prakrit, the language
in which Jainas and Buddhists propagated their doctrines among the
people. The work seeks to achieve two things: to contradict the
“lies and absurdities “of existing story (evident
reference to Valmiki) and to establish the goodness of all beings
that are depicted as bad – Kaikeyi, Vali, and Ravana. Rakshasas
are represented as Vidyadharas, a class of people with
knowledge and spiritual powers; so are vanaras. Situations of
killing are avoided, including the incident of the golden deer.
Lakshmana killed Ravana and goes to hell for not following Jaina
ideals whereas Rama becomes a Jain; Sita, and even Kaikeyi, converts
into a Jain nun, thus making the story expressly subordinate to
missionary preaching. Needless to say, all the dramatic power is
lost, but the version does not seek to attain the level of
literature.
When the Jain tradition
sought to gain elite recognition by retelling the story in Sanskrit
it did not improve matters very much. Padma caritam of Ravisena in
the 7th century is not any more popular than Pauma cariyu.
The mutation that the
Ramayana underwent in the hands of the votaries of the Shakti and
Sahaja cults in medieval times is exemplified in Bhusundi Ramayana
which appeared in Sanskrit in the 12th century A.D.
Raslila and amorous sports from part of
the narration. Dr. Bhagwati Prasad Singh has drawn attention to the
influence of that cult on the sculpture in Khajuraho, depicting Rama
and Sita in amorous poses, which speaks of the kind of dominant
influence. At the same time Bhusundi injects the Jaina ideal of
renunciation on the story, in the departure
of Dasaratha and Kaikeyi on a
pilgrimage, leaving Rama to rule Ayodhya. The story becomes
subordinate to didacticism.
The “Adhyatma
Ramayana” in Sanskrit, which also belongs to this period, and
which was one of the influences on Bhusundi, is recognized as an
instrument in the propagation of adivaiti or non-dualistic
philosophy, combined with devotion to Rama. In this light, it
becomes yet another version devised to press a sectarian view.
The Kavya tradition is
Sanskrit draws the line of continuity in tradition. Beginning with
Bhasa’s abhisheka Nataka’ we find the classical tradition
reverting to the Ramayana story, like bees that keep returning to the
favourite louts. Works such as ‘Janakiharana’ of
Kumaradasa ‘Uttara Ramacharitam’ of Bhavabhooti and
‘Kundmala’ of Dinnaga are classics, known to scholars.
Kalidasa’s ‘Raghuvamsam’ stands apart, being more in
the nature of a chronicle of the solar race (to which Rama belonged);
yet its poetic merit is universally recognized. Minor works such s
‘Anandaraghavam’ and ‘Anargava raghavam’
reflect the continuum in the tradition, unaffected by the rise of
regional languages.
The first major work of
classical status in a language other than Sanskrit or Prakrit happens
to be in Tamil. This is Kamban’s Ramayana (‘Ramakathai’
was the original title) which belongs to the 10th century
A.D., though some scholars seems to place it earlier and some others
later. Running into about 10,000 stanzas (more, according to some
editions). The striking feature in the periods to follow is that as
languages grew in stature, almost the first serious work in any
language, happened to be a rendering of the Ramayana. The Pampa
Ramayana of Nagachandra in Kannada, The Ranganatha Ramayana in
Telugu, The Vilanka Ramayana in Oriya, Krithivasa’s Ramayana in
Bengali, Madhar Kunali’s work in Assamese and Ezhuttaccan’s
work in Malayalam, are some of the works that proceed the famous and
monumental work of Tulsidas in the language known as Awadhi. In turn,
in each language the version of Ramayana became the path-maker for
literary development.
Apart from regional
versions produced by eminent poets in each language, there have been,
in the last two centuries, a growing number of translations of the
original English versions which are also available in good number.
The extent and nature of variations in the different versions of the
Ramayana are wide, baffling and yet offer a cogent picture. Adapting
the great epic to the milieu in which the new writers lived, they
have changed details around in a fashion so as to keep the emphasis
on the qualities of Rama.
No great classic has
nourished the Indians, generation after generation so richly as the
Ramayana. Equally no great classic has allowed itself to be handled
thus by the very people who seek and draw such nourishment. One
variation while interpolation or variation while discussion the Iliad
of Homer or even Kalidasa in our own tradition.
The Ramayana is a
class apart.
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